Levels of Discrimination

This page examines how gender-based discrimination occurs at multiple interconnected levels in society.

The four main levels of discrimination are:

1. Personal: Internal beliefs and feelings, e.g. believing same-sex marriage should be illegal
2. Interpersonal: Actions and behaviors between individuals, e.g. a man telling a female coworker she should dress more provocatively
3. Institutional: Rules, policies and procedures, e.g. requiring students to use bathrooms matching their sex assigned at birth
4. Cultural: Societal values and norms, e.g. fashion magazines predominantly featuring thin, white, cisgender women as the beauty ideal

Highlight: Discrimination can happen at any level and often occurs simultaneously across multiple levels.

Example: A 2012 survey found that in 28% of heterosexual marriages, women earned more than their male partners. This challenges traditional gender roles at both personal and cultural levels.

Vocabulary: Cisgender refers to people whose gender identity matches their sex assigned at birth.

Gender Equality Progress and Challenges

This page examines areas of progress and persistent challenges in achieving gender equality, particularly in the workforce.

Key points on gender equality progress:

• Women now account for 46% of the total workforce in the US, up from 37% in 1972
• Women have made gains in traditionally male-dominated fields like medicine and law

Ongoing challenges include:

• The gender pay gap persists, with women earning less than men on average
• Women remain underrepresented in leadership positions, e.g. only 8% of Fortune 500 CEOs are women
• Women continue to do a disproportionate share of unpaid housework and childcare

Example: On an average day, only 19% of American men do housework compared to 48% of women.

Definition: The gender pay gap measures the difference in average earnings between men and women. It can be calculated as "controlled" (comparing men and women in the same job) or "uncontrolled" (comparing all working men and women).

Highlight: The uncontrolled gender pay gap in the US shows women earning 82 cents for every dollar earned by men in 2021.

Historically Changing Gender Roles

This page explores how gender roles and expectations have shifted over time, challenging the idea that current norms are fixed or "natural."

Examples of changing gender roles:

1. Pink was considered a masculine color and blue feminine until the early 20th century
2. High heels were originally created for men and seen as masculine footwear
3. Men crying was historically normalized and even expected as a sign of sincerity
4. The desire to have children ("baby fever") affects both men and women, but peaks at different ages

Example: In the 18th century, European elite men wore high heels as a symbol of status and masculinity. The style became associated with women's fashion in the 19th century.

Highlight: These examples demonstrate how gender norms and expectations can change dramatically over time and across cultures.

Quote: "Research from 2011 showed that 'baby fever' is strongest for women at younger ages and decreases as they age, while for men it increases as they get older."