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addressed, someone talking to you Rhetorical strategies quoting experts & authorities, e.g. scientists, politicians -> to back up one's statements & make them & the author seem more reliable & credible including personal statements of people affected by the issue at hand -> to add a personal touch, to make it easier for the reader to identify with a story making claims instead of evidence-based arguments, e.g. by introducing statements with : "No one can deny that..", "Without a doubt..", "it is no surprise that.." -> to present opinions as facts / as points that are beyond criticism using humor and irony, e.g. by making fun of a situation, commenting humorously on something -> to ridicule unacceptable/strange/.. behavior, to make an article more light- hearted & entertaining Stylistic devices alliteration (words starting with the same letter/sound) -> to make a certain point more memorable, to create a sense of sharpness repetitions (of words or phrases) -> to emphasize a message, to draw attention to a key word personification (giving things human-like qualities, e.g. My gap year opened the door to a new life for me -> to create a strong impression on the reader of what something is capable of hyperbole (exaggeration) -> to create a vivid image to illustrate the dimension of a problem metaphor (an image, a comparison without words like "like" & "as", e.g. My gap year I was a long, beautiful dream) -> to capture what is crucial about a character & a situation with a powerful image, to bring out the specific nature of a character/situation enumeration (a list) -> to draw attention to the scale of a development & to give an overview of a variety of arguments Narrative technique/narrative perspective point of view the perspective from which the characters/events are presented unlimited point of view/omniscient narrator a narrator who seems to know everything, presents the action & characters' thoughts, etc. Witness/observer narrator a narrator who is a character in the story (e.g. protagonist/minor character); usually has a limited perspective Limited point of view e.g. a first-person/third-person narrator who only has Limited insight & presents the actions & the characters' thoughts subjective/unreliable or objective/reliable narrator a narrator who the reader can (not) trust, e.g. because the narrator is a very dubious & strange person stream of consciousness the presentation of experiences & thoughts through the mind (-> thoughts) of one character in a text; a special technique here is the interior monologue (= a special kind of scenic presentation which is often not in chronological order) mode of presentation a) panoramic : -> the author tells the story.. b) scenic -> the author shows an event in detail using dialogue & describing a scene, etc. Analyse how the speaker connects with his audience common strategies A The frequent use of 'I' & 'You' establishes a personal relationship even with a huge audience. 'We' establishes a feeling of togetherness, a group feeling B Starting with a humorous remark breaks the ice. Alternatively, a very solemn remark makes the audience aware of the importance of the speech C Certain groups of people in the audience (i.e. fathers, children) are addressed and references made to their experiences (i.e. people feeling unsafe and insecure). The audience thus feels understood by the speaker. D Emotive Language is a powerful tool to establish a good speaker- audience relationship, ie words that trigger off emotions ('child' or 'mum') as compared to abstract terms which leave a person indifferent (descendant' or 'citizen). E 'Fishing for compliments' - The speaker talks about himself in inferior terms to evoke the opposite response (e.g. "I am not a terribly good speaker." /"I am not really an expert in this field."). F Appearing truthful and authentic. A vague or evasive speaker will not succeed in convincing or moving an audience. Talking openly about unpleasant and embarrassing truths can engage the listeners very effectively. G Ther are speakers who for various reasons (i,e. deliberate deception or sensitivity) leave some things unsaid, gloss over unpleasant truths or even twist the truth using euphemisms, i.e pleasant words for unpleasant facts.